Infectious Diseases and Public Health

By Alice Huang 

Infectious diseases, which are also referred to as communicable or contagious diseases are caused by germs or pathogenic microorganisms such as fungi, viruses, bacteria and parasites among others. From their name, these diseases are highly infectious or contagious, which means that their means mode of transmission is from one individual to another either directly or indirectly. The transmission of these diseases occur in a number of ways such as through physical contact, body fluids, contaminated food, transmission by vector organisms and airborne inhalation among others. Research indicates that infectious diseases are very dangerous and that they are responsible for more deaths than any other single cause (Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011).

The history or background of infectious diseases can be traced back to many centuries ago and it is believed that most of them such as malaria, may have originated from the tropical forests of Africa. This is also one of the reasons why these diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis are referred to as tropical diseases. Over the years, a lot of research has been dedicated into the cures and sustainable solutions for eradicating communicable diseases, most of which have borne fruits through major developments (Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011). The research has helped in coming up with ways to control, treat, eradicate and prevent the diseases. Without doubt, these researches have helped in solving millions of people across the globe.

For instance, small pox, which is regarded as one of the most dangerous infectious diseases, was completely eradicated in 1979, after the discovery of the small pox vaccine. Infectious diseases are often classified in accordance to their causes. For instance, as indicated earlier, the major causes of infectious diseases include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and parasites among others. Some of the major infectious diseases in the world include tuberculosis, malaria, various types of flu such as swine flu and avian flu, small pox, chicken pox, typhoid meningitis, tetanus, Hepatitis B, Syphilis and Measles among others. 

Majority of these infectious diseases are life threatening and they therefore have a major impact on the lifestyles of people. For instance, it some of them are very expensive to treat once contracted especially in terms of finances and time needed for patient management. They also affect the daily lives of people such that whenever there is an outbreak, people have to stay very alert to avoid infections especially for those transmitted through the air (Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011).

 Majority of these infectious diseases are preventable through vaccines and medication after consultation with medical professionals. However, one of the basic and most effective ways of preventing the spread of communicable diseases is by observing hygiene in all aspects of our daily lives. Community awareness is also another way to prevent communicable diseases, in this way the government and some NGO’s are actively involved in educating the communities on ways and measures to curb spread and diseases. In most cases vaccines and medication for such diseases is offered for free. In addition, other cures and solutions for prevention of infectious diseases include immunization, especially for newly-borns which should be kept up to date, eat healthy and hygienically foods, use antibiotics as per the prescription of the doctors, seeking medical attention if infection persists even after medication, being cautious around al, wild animals as well as unfamiliar domestic animals, avoiding unprotected sex, staying alert especially when visiting undeveloped and high risk disease areas as well as areas of insect infestation. 

Some of the major infectious diseases in the world including tuberculosis, malaria, various types of flu such as swine flu and avian flu, small pox, chicken pox, typhoid meningitis, tetanus, Hepatitis B, Syphilis and Measles among others attract major scrutiny from the governments and organizations.

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About the Author: Alice Huang is  a sophomore at UC Berkeley, with a major in Molecular and Cellular Biology. She loves to write and writing has become her way of expression for the occurrences in her daily life! She is interested in public health primarily because she likes learning about nutrition and thinks that maintaining a healthy body is more important than trying to find cures to the variety of diseases out there in the world. 

Vinegar and Cervical Cancer?

I’d heard from the Turkish manager of my apartment that drinking a tablespoon of vinegar could cure any cold or flu, but I was not aware that it could also detect cervical cancer.  Better yet, it’s actually true!  The New York Times article “Fighting Cervical Cancer with Vinegar and Ingenuity” explains how the acetic acid in common household vinegar turns cancerous lesions in the cervix white, allowing them to be frozen off.  The whole procedure, both detection and removal, can be accomplished by a nurse in just one visit.  For women in developing countries, who may be hindered by both distance and finance from larger medical centers, this technology is an important and effective way to reduce deaths cervical cancer.  http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/27/health/27cancer.html 

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About the Author: Mara Constantine is a 4th year sociology major and California native. She is currently a research assistant for Professor Kristin Luker. In addition to writing for the Public Health Advocate blog, Mara is also an active member of the Cal Cooking Club and a tutor in the YWCA’s English-in-Action program. Her public health interests include maternal and child health, health of immigrant populations, and health disparities.Abou

Gender Inequalities in Health Care

By Umair Jamal

Gender differences and inequalities have resulted in differences in health status and health care between men and women. In our society, women tend to have less access to health care than men. Socio-cultural factors often prevent women from accessing certain health care resources that are easily available to men. Women are also more prone to develop a variety of diseases and disorders including mental health problems, which are expensive to treat. According to World Health Organization, examples of such disorders can be anxiety, depression, or eating disorders.  Social factors such as violence and discrimination against women can have a negative effect on their health. In general, men have greater access to health care than women because men are more likely to have more resources, their disease and mental disorder rates are lower, and they face less violence and discrimination as compared to women. For women, exposure to more violence is associated with greater health problems. As an attempt to solve these issues, there are health agencies and organizations raising awareness of women’s health and are taking action to improving the quality of health for women. .

Throughout the world, on average, women are receiving less cash income than men, so men are more likely to afford healthcare . More women than men tend to have unpaid employment, economic dependency, and child-care responsibilities. They tend to have better education, better jobs, and are out at work all throughout the day so they partake less than women in child-care responsibility. 

In addition to these social factors, which are associated with less access to health care for women, another major factor is mental disorders. According to WHO, females have a higher prevalence than males in developing anxiety, depression, eating disorders, or other mental health conditions. If these are left untreated, additional physical health problems may arise. Co-pays and deductibles can be highly expensive for these services, and costs add up which results as a problem not only for women without health insurance, but also for those who do have it. Many health insurance plans do not include mental health services, and it becomes difficult for women to seek the treatment they need. 

Women have a greater chance of heart attack. Women are less likely to survive a heart attack than men, and are more likely to have atypical symptoms from the attack. Those females who survive a heart attack have a higher rate of a second myocardial infarction as well as higher rates of congestive heart failures than men. Since women have a higher possibility of being diagnosed with such diseases, they are charged more for health insurance, and the cost may be to high for them to afford.. 

Violence and discrimination can also have negative health consequences for women. Violence against women has serious health consequences which can result in physical injuries and health problems related to mental health and HIV/AIDS,. Women who experience violence are more exposed to HIV/AIDS and STDs. Violence can also have negative outcomes to mental health. Women who fear violence may be prevented from learning or sharing their HIV status and from receiving treatment. 

In addition, violence and discrimination against female infants results in a high rate of infanticide and neglect. These infants face malnutrition and the illness is not addressed in young girls. There are higher rates of  malnutrition because of the low social status of women, and, it contributes to higher mortality rates for women and infants. With neglect, low status for women, as well as these negative health consequences, it would not be easy to obtain access to health care. It is becoming a serious problem that women are not having access, that major initiatives are needed in order to increase awareness on the health issues of women and solve the problem. 

The American Heart Association launched the “Go Red Campaign,” which had people to wear the color red and decorated national monuments in red which brought attention to women and heart disease. In addition to this campaign, a program in Florida, called “Take It To Heart,” was a collaboration between companies, organizations, and the media in order to convey the message of gender inequalities to health care. “Take It To Heart,” has attracted a lot of people. Large amounts of crowds have attended health fairs and conventions centered on women’s issues. In addition to these awareness campaigns, more can be done to improve health and health care access for women.

The National Council of Women’s Organizations believe that it is important to improve programs and policies to address female’s physical wellbeing throughout their life. The organization’s agenda is to eliminate    inequalities and discrimination that affects many women. In terms of women’s health, they support universally accessible health care in mental health, long-term care, and HIV/AIDS services.  

In order for women to utilize more health care services, women have to overcome barriers set by gender inequality. One  strategy is to reduce the cost of health care. Another strategy includes improving and expanding services. This is intended to make health services more available in the community to reach the poorest and most remote areas. Another strategy is to reduce inequality and empower women. Some of the ways to empower women is for them to receive education, employment, mobility, and social networks. Decreasing discrimination is an example of reducing inequality. 

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About the Author: Umair Jamal graduated from UC Berkeley in 2011 with a major in Public Health. His interests in Public Health include Global Health, Community Health, and Biostatistics. As an undergraduate, he was also a member of the International Health Committee in the CalUPHC. As of now, Umair is doing a post-bac at Berkeley in the Pre-Health professions program. He plans on pursuing medicine in the future.

Breastfeeding at Home and Abroad

Can you imagine a readily available medicine that increases immunity to all kinds of diseases and decreases intestinal problems and obesity? If it sounds like the kind of miracle drug that can’t possibly exist, think again - it’s breast milk! While the WHO recommends that babies be fed breast milk exclusively for the first six months of their life, there are, unfortunately, many obstacles to breastfeeding both at home and abroad. In the heartbreaking and frustrating New York Times article “The Breast Milk Cure,” the author discusses the common misconception that babies need to be given water on hot days. In developing countries, this is extremely dangerous to the babies’ health because of the high risk of contaminated water that can quickly cause death in an infant. And when formula is used in developing countries, the risk of illness is again high due to improperly sanitized baby bottles and the probability of contaminated water being mixed with the formula. A third problem relating to breastfeeding is the cultural practice of colostrum denial. Colostrum is the yellow substance produced during the first days after delivery; it contains many antibodies to build the immunity of infants. When women delay nursing for even a few days, they may have increased difficultly in establishing breastfeeding, in addition to forgoing the opportunity to provide critical antibodies to the infant. New mothers that deny their infants colostrum are also more likely to feed their babies contaminated water until milk is produced. If more women practiced ideal breastfeeding, a substantial amount of infant mortality could be prevented – 1.4 million deaths per year, according to The Lancet.

While “The Breast Milk Cure” focuses on Africa, the state of breastfeeding in the US also shows considerable room for improvement. For example, the CDC released a report this summer stating that US hospitals fail to adequately support mothers in breastfeeding. This article discusses the CDC report and explains that hospitals can actually support formula use, as opposed to breastfeeding, through the use of free formula samples for new parents. An Associated Press article published last week explained the reasons why free formula samples undermine breastfeeding: because samples are given to the new mothers by the hospital, people really think it must be good for their babies. Formula industry representatives defend the practice of the free samples by saying that they provide an important source of nutrition to have available for the baby if needed for any reason, and that the information included with the sample instructs parents in how to use formula safely, such as making it clear that formula cannot safely be watered down. It is my opinion that hospitals should not be allowed to distribute free formula samples because they are obviously intended to encourage formula use, which goes against the WHO recommendation that exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life is the healthiest way to nourish a baby.

Returning to the CDC report, I was astounded to read that only about 1/3 of US hospitals keep the mother and baby together at all times. Having a separate nursery for babies seems like something from a movie that belongs in another era, but it is still the circumstance in which many American babies begin their lives. This harmful and easily changeable practice makes it much more difficult for mothers to establish breastfeeding and to receive help for any problems they have with it while they are still in the hospital. As we can see, there is much work to be done both at home and abroad to increase the prevalence of breastfeeding.

If you would like to read more on this important public health issue, here is a selection of other articles on the topic:

The Wall Street Journal

The Center For Disease Control

The Huffington Post

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About the Author: Mara Constantine is a 4th year sociology major and California native. She is currently a research assistant for Professor Kristin Luker. In addition to writing for the Public Health Advocate blog, Mara is also an active member of the Cal Cooking Club and a tutor in the YWCA’s English-in-Action program. Her public health interests include maternal and child health, health of immigrant populations, and health disparities.About the Author: Mara Constantine is a 4th year sociology

About the Author: Mara Constantine is a 4th year sociology major and California native. She is currently a research assistant for Professor Kristin Luker. In addition to writing for the Public Health Advocate blog, Mara is also an active member of the Cal Cooking Club and a tutor in the YWCA’s English-in-Action program. Her public health interests include maternal and child health, health of immigrant populations, and health disparities.About the Author: Mara Constantine is a 4th year sociology major and California native. She is currently a research assistant for Professor Kristin Luker. In addition to writing for the Public Health Advocate blog, Mara is also an active member of the Cal Cooking Club and a tutor in the YWCA’s English-in-Action program. Her public health interests include maternal and child health, health of immigrant populations, and health disparities. major and California native. She is currently a research assistant for Professor Kristin Luker. In addition to writing for the Public Health Advocate blog, Mara is also an active member of the Cal Cooking Club and a tutor in the YWCA’s English-in-Action program. Her public health interests include maternal and child health, health of immigrant populations, and health disparities.